Teaching Requirements by State

Across the U.S., individual states have unique requirements for how to become a certified teacher.

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Requirements for K-12 teachers vary by state. Here's what you need to know about the degrees, exams, and practical training required to become a licensed teacher where you live.

Across the U.S., individual states have unique requirements for how to become a certified teacher. Still, some basic qualifications exist, regardless of location. Teaching requirements by state differ depending on:

To secure a job, teachers traditionally need to complete college coursework, take a certification exam, and provide references and comparable documentation. To locate the appropriate degree, major, and additional certifications, check out the resources on this page.

Teaching Qualifications by State

We have prepared a map to help you learn more about teaching requirements in each U.S. state. To find out more about requisite teaching qualifications by state, hover or click on each location.

This map gives you access to each state's teaching qualification requirements with guidance, resources, and direct website links to advance your career. With just a few clicks of your mouse, you can find out everything you need to know about becoming a licensed teacher in your state — whether or not you already have a degree in education.

State

Discover each state's qualifications and requirements for K-12 teacher certification by selecting a state above.

Overview of State Requirements for Teacher Certification or Licensure

The table below includes information about K-12 teaching requirements for first-time licensure. Many states differ in specifics, but all states require licensed teachers to earn at least a bachelor's degree.

Some states mandate the type of degree a teacher holds, specific coursework, and the amount of practical experience completed. Students may need a degree in education from a state-approved institution. Learners who do not meet these requirements may have options to complete a supplemental sanctioned teacher-preparation program.

Numerous states mandate that K-12 teachers complete basic skills exams as part of the licensure process. Basic skills exams confirm that an aspiring teacher meets a baseline level of competence in reading, writing, and mathematics. States may require would-be teachers to complete an exam developed by an internal body or by an organization like the Educational Testing Service (ETS). Check out the table below to find out more.

Subject area tests, much like basic skills exams, are designed by state regulatory bodies or by ETS. ETS alone offers more than 90 subject assessments. These exams assess teaching skills applicable to different subjects and grade levels.

Individuals who want to teach specific subjects like science, language, or physical education may need to complete subject area competence exams. Hawaii and Rhode Island, for example, require all early education teachers to complete subject area competence exams.

Because states regularly change licensure requirements with the passage of new legislation, applicants should check often to make sure they meet all of the qualifications.

Alabama

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam ACT WorkKeys System
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? Performance assessment
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Alaska

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Any approved basic competency exam
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 2 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Arizona

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Arizona Educator Proficiency Assessment or National Evaluation Series
Subject Area Competence Exam Arizona Educator Proficiency Assessment or National Evaluation Series
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 12 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Arkansas

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading, and Writing
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

California

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Any approved basic competency exam
Subject Area Competence Exam California Subject Examinations for Teachers
Other Assessments? Performance assessment
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Colorado

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam An approved content exam
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Connecticut

Master's Required? No; however, a master's or graduate coursework is required to advance to a professional teacher's certificate
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam ACT, SAT, GRE, or Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading andWriting tests
Subject Area Competence Exam An approved content exam
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Delaware

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject or American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages tests
Other Assessments? Performance assessment
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 4 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Florida

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Florida General Knowledge Test or GRE General Test
Subject Area Competence Exam Florida Subject Area Test
Other Assessments? Florida Professional Educator Test
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years (for temporary certificate) or 5 years (for professional certificate)
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Georgia

Master's Required? No; however, a master's is one route to an Advanced/Lead Professional Certification
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam An approved content exam
Other Assessments? Georgia Educator Ethics Assessment
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years (for provisional certificate) or 5 years (for induction certificate)
Full Reciprocity? No

Hawaii

Master's Required? No; however, a master's is one route to an Advanced License
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam An approved verification option
Subject Area Competence Exam An approved verification option
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Idaho

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Illinois

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam Illinois Licensure Testing System tests
Other Assessments? edTPA
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Indiana

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam State-approved pedagogy/developmental exam
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 2 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Iowa

Master's Required? No; however, a master's is required to receive a Master Educator license
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam State-approved pedagogy exam
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 2 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Kansas

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 2 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Kentucky

Master's Required? No; however, a master's degree is required for Rank II certification
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam GRE or Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading and Writing tests
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Louisiana

Master's Required? No; however, a master's is required to earn a Level 3 Professional Certificate
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam ACT, SAT, or Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading and Writing
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching exams
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Maine

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading, and Writing
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Maryland

Master's Required? No; however, a master's degree or graduate coursework is required for the Advanced Professional Certificate
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam ACT, SAT, GRE, or Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading andWriting tests
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject or American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Massachusetts

Master's Required? No; however, earning a master's is one route to earning a Professional License
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure or other approved exams
Other Assessments? Sheltered English Immersion MTEL or other endorsement path
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Michigan

Master's Required? No; however, earning a master's is one route to earning a Professional Certification
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Michigan Test for Teacher Certification (taken before college admission)
Subject Area Competence Exam MTTC content exams
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Minnesota

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam ACT Plus Writing, SAT, GRE Praxis Core, or Minnesota NES Essential Academic Skills exam
Subject Area Competence Exam Minnesota Teacher Licensure Examination
Other Assessments? MTLE pedagogy exam
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 1 year (for Tier 1) or 2 years (for Tier 2)
Full Reciprocity? No

Mississippi

Master's Required? No; however, a master's is required to receive a Class AA license
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam ACT, SAT, or Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading and Writing
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Missouri

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Missouri General Education Assessment (before enrolling in a teacher preparation program)
Subject Area Competence Exam Missouri Content Assessment
Other Assessments? Missouri Educator Evaluation System for Teacher Candidates
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 4 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Montana

Master's Required? No; however, earning a master's is one route to Class 1 Educator Licensure.
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Nebraska

Master's Required? No; however, a master's is requied to receive a Professional Certificate
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading, and Writing
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Nevada

Master's Required? No; however, a master's is required to earn a Professional License
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading, and Writing
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching (secondary and middle school licenses)
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

New Hampshire

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam ACT, SAT, GRE, or Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading andWriting tests
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests and/or Pearson's Foundations of Reading Test (depending on credential)
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

New Jersey

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam ACT, SAT, GRE, or Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading andWriting tests
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? edTPA
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 2 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

New Mexico

Master's Required? No; however, a master's is one route to Level 3 licensure
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading, and Writing
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? No

New York

Master's Required? No; however, a master's may be required to advance to a Professional Certificate
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Educating All Students Test
Subject Area Competence Exam Content Special Test
Other Assessments? edTPA
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? No

North Carolina

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading, and Writing
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests and/or Pearson's Foundations of Reading Test (depending on credential)
Other Assessments? Praxis Performance Assessment for Teachers or edTPA assessment
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? No

North Dakota

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading, and Writing
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 2 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Ohio

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Assessment of Professional Knowledge or edTPA
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject or American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 4 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Oklahoma

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Oklahoma General Education Test
Subject Area Competence Exam Oklahoma Subject Area Tests
Other Assessments? Oklahoma Professional Teaching Examination
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Oregon

Master's Required? No; however, a master's is one route to a Professional Teaching License
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam Oregon Educator Licensure Assessments or Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? Protecting Student and Civil Rights in the Educational Environment
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Pennsylvania

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam An approved verification option
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 6 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Rhode Island

Master's Required? No; however, a master's degree is one route to an Advanced Educator Certificate
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam An approved content exam
Other Assessments? Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

South Carolina

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching, edTPA or PPAT
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

South Dakota

Master's Required? No; however, a master's is one route to an Advanced Teaching Certificate
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? PPAT or Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Tennessee

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Texas

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam An approved content exam
Other Assessments? An approved pedagogy exam
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 1 year (for Initial Certificate) or 5 years (for Standard Certificate)
Full Reciprocity? No

Utah

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam An approved content exam
Other Assessments? PPAT or edPTA
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 2 years (for Associate Educator License) or 5 years (for Professional Educator License)
Full Reciprocity? No

Vermont

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading, and Writing
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Virginia

Master's Required? No; however, a master's is required for a Postgraduate Professional License
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Virginia Communication and Literacy Assessment
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests or Praxis Series Reading for Virginia Educators
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years (for a Provisional License) or 10 years (for a Collegiate Professional License)
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Washington

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Washington Educator Skills Tests - Basic or an approved alternative
Subject Area Competence Exam WEST - Endorsements/National Evaluation Series or an approved alternative
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? No

Washington, D.C.

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading, and Writing
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years (for Initial Teacher Credential) or 4 years (for Standard Teacher Credential)
Full Reciprocity? Yes

West Virginia

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam Praxis Core Mathematics, Reading, and Writing
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Wisconsin

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam Praxis Subject Tests or other approved subject area competency verification method
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 3 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Wyoming

Master's Required? No
Supervised Clinical Practice? Yes
Basic Skills Exam No
Subject Area Competence Exam Generally no; some endorsements require Praxis Subject Tests
Other Assessments? No
Length of Initial Certification/Licensure? 5 years
Full Reciprocity? Yes

Popular Bachelor's in Education Programs

Learn about start dates, transferring credits, availability of financial aid, and more by contacting the universities below.

General Requirements to Become a K-12 Teacher

As seen with the map and the table above, K-12 teacher qualification requirements vary by state. However, one consistent requirement is a bachelor's degree.

While many states mandate teachers have a degree in education or a specific subject area, individuals with a bachelor's in any subject can become a teacher by taking additional steps: completing a teacher preparation program, student teaching, and competency exams.

When applying for initial teacher certification, students submit required documentation to the appropriate state agency. Applicants should research possibilities for reciprocity and details about the length of licensure and renewal processes.

1. Earn a bachelor's or master's degree from an accredited program.

To earn a bachelor's degree from an accredited program, students should explore degrees that meet the standards established by the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP), the accrediting body for educator preparation programs throughout the U.S.

Aspiring teachers can earn bachelor's degrees in education in areas such as:

  • Early childhood education
  • Elementary education
  • Secondary education
  • Special education
  • Educational leadership
  • English as a second language

Additional areas of study include curriculum and design, instructional technology, and education administration. These are commonly found at the graduate level. Even without a master's degree in one of these areas, holding a graduate degree in any area can serve as a springboard for career advancement when accompanied by teaching credentials.

Secondary education teachers should also consider earning a degree in the subject they seek to teach. Science teachers, for example, can earn a bachelor's degree in biology, chemistry, or physics while completing requisite education coursework. Another option for secondary teachers is a master's degree in education with a specialization in a specific subject.

2. Complete student teaching requirements.

Student teaching places aspiring teachers in a classroom to apply what they have learned. Individuals immerse themselves in a school setting, working with teachers and students alike. Aspiring elementary school teachers spend their days in an elementary classroom, while future science teachers work in a science class at the secondary or high school level.

Student teachers develop lesson plans, instruct learners, and create assessments under the supervision of a K-12 teacher and program mentor. Student teaching requirements generally span one semester, with the prospective teacher working full time in their assigned classroom.

3. Pass your state's required exam for teacher certification or licensure.

If your state requires an exam for teacher certification or licensure, determine when you can take it.

The Praxis® Core Academic Skills for Educators is offered at thousands of testing centers around the U.S., with additional options to complete it at home. Similarly, students who need to take Praxis® Subject Assessments in areas such as early childhood, elementary, and secondary education can do so at approved testing centers or at home. Each exam consists of objective response questions and essay sections.

4. Apply for teacher certification or licensure in your state.

To apply for teacher certification or licensure in your state, determine the required documentation. At minimum, most states need a completed application form, college transcripts, and a copy of requisite exam scores.

Additional requirements may include evidence of first aid and CPR training, a recommendation form, fingerprint and background check waivers, and a copy of your driver's license. Applying for certification or licensure is also accompanied by a fee.

5. Apply for teaching jobs.

As you look for teaching jobs, gather letters of recommendation, references, a resume, and examples of your classroom experience. Having a portfolio to supplement teaching demonstrations at interviews provides insight into your teaching process and presentation.

Finding the right job requires networking and research. Reaching out to colleagues, getting guidance from mentors, and browsing job resources provided by professional organizations can lead you to open positions. Learning about specific school districts and schools demographics, performance, and funding also helps you understand more about what your future position could entail.

6. Earn (voluntary) National Board certification.

Earning additional certifications can advance your teaching career. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) certifies teachers who have at least three years of professional experience, a valid teaching license, and a bachelor's degree.

Becoming a National Board Certified teacher requires applicants to complete a content-area assessment and submit three portfolio entries. The NBPTS awards certification in 25 content areas. Certification through the NBPTS demonstrates teaching excellence and boosts earning potential for practicing teachers.

7. Renew your teaching license and pursue continuing education.

The length of a teaching certificate varies by state, but when it comes time to renew, teachers should understand what they need to do. To reapply, teachers submit portfolios documenting their work and pay a renewal fee by the designated deadline.

In anticipation of renewal, teachers should complete continuing education and professional development hours. Many of these requirements may be met through online training and workshops, at conferences, or as part of community service and engagement.

Popular Master's in Education Programs

Learn about start dates, transferring credits, availability of financial aid, and more by contacting the universities below.

Teacher Certification Reciprocity

Teacher certification reciprocity involves one state honoring teaching credentials issued by another state. The National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education Interstate Agreement serves as a repository of information about which states honor credentials from others. However, the information provided does not indicate reciprocity.

Full reciprocity means the teacher certification transfers over with no issue or additional requirements. While individual states may honor teaching credentials issued elsewhere as a temporary placeholder, the teacher may need to reapply for certification in their new state.

Partial reciprocity comes with additional jurisdiction specific requirements. Teachers may need to complete additional coursework and assessments alongside the credentials accepted through reciprocity.

Contact the licensing agency in the state where you want to teach to find out more about interstate reciprocity.

Common Questions on How to Become a Teacher

How Long Does It Take to Become a Teacher?

It generally takes 4-5 years to become a teacher.

Can I Teach Without a Certificate?

Some states allow temporary options for teaching without a teaching certificate, but becoming a teacher requires certification.

How Do I Become a Teacher if I Did Not Major in Education?

Without a degree in education, you can become a teacher by completing a teacher-preparation program and passing the required assessments for your state.

What Certifications Are Required for Teaching?

Certifications for teaching differ by state. Individuals may need to take an exam offered by a state regulatory body or an assessment such as the Praxis®.

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Melissa Sartore

Melissa Sartore holds a Ph.D. in history from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Her BA and MA in history are from Western Illinois University. A medievalist by training, she has published on outlawry in medieval England with additional publications on outlaws in popular culture and across geographic and historical boundaries.

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